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      會話原則文化因素英語

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      會話原則文化因素英語

      Abstract:Therearesomeconversationalprinciplesnecessaryforasuccessfulconversation.OneistheCooperativePrincipleoffourmaxims.Violatinganyoneofthefourmaximswillgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures;theotheristhePolitenessPrinciple,proposedtorescuetheCooperativePrinciple.

      TodrawpragmaticimplicationsfromtheviolationoftheCooperativePrincipleisofnodifferencebetweenthewestandtheeast.Whataredifferentliesinpeople’schoiceofthemaximsoftheCooperativePrincipleandthisisduetodifferentculturalbackground.Chinese-styledpolitenessischaracterizedbyfouraspects:respectfulness,modesty,attitudinalwarmthandrefinement.

      Language,asaspecialformofcommunication,maybeviewedasasystem,asavehicleforculturaltransmission.Itdoesnotexistapartfromculture.Thus,languageandculturalareinteractiveandunderstandingofonerequiresunderstandingoftheother.Tobetterachievethecommunicativegoal,itisnecessarytochoosetheappreciatewayofexpressionundercertaincircumstancesandculturalfactorsplaysanimportantroleinusinglanguageeffectively.

      Keywords:culturaldifference;conversationalprinciples;CooperativePrinciple;PolitenessPrinciple

      Fewareasofpeople’sexperienceareclosertothemormorecontinuouslywiththemthantheirlanguage—theyhavetocommunicatebyspeaking,listening,readingandwritingineverydaylife.Inthecourseofcommunication,itisnodoubtthatspeechenjoysprioritynotonlybecauseitprecedeswritingintermsofevolution,butalargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinconversationaswell.Anidealconversationisusuallyassumedtobecarriedoutby“turn-taking”andthusthemeaningsoftheutteranceareexpressedaccordingly.However,therealintentionsofthespeakerscannotalwaysbedrawnbysimplyinterpretingthesurfacemeaningsofthewordsintheutterance,forpeopleoftentendtomeanmoreinaroundaboutwaythanwhattheyactuallysay.Let’sfirstlookatanexamplewhichtookplaceonthecampusatnoon:

      Devin:Whattimeisit?

      Jakie:Thestudentsaregoingtothedininghall.

      Here,Jakie’sanswerdoesn’tseemtomakesenseonthefaceofit,butitisstillanadequateanswerforDevin,becausetheparticularcontextsofthisconversationincludethefactthatthestudentsusuallyhavelunchatabout11:30intheuniversityandDevinisawareofthis.ItispossibleforDevintoworkoutthetimebyinterpretingorguessingwhatJakiesaysandthemoresheknowsaboutthecontext,themorequalifiedherguessworkisgoingtobe.

      Normallyinconversationalinteraction,peopleworkontheassumptionthatacertainsetofrulesisinoperation,unlesstheyreceiveindicationstothecontrary.Forexample,ifJakiegivesthesameanswertoastranger,it’lllikelyleadtocommunicationbreakdownbecausenobodyexpectsasuccessfulconversationinwhichpeopletrytoconfuse,trick,orwithholdrelevantinformationfromeachother.Inotherwords,asuccessfulconversationshouldbethefruitofalltheparticipants’effortsandcollaborationisanecessaryfactorforthemtoachieveacertaingoal.Therefore,peopleareexpectedtobecooperateduringaconversation,andsuchcooperativemechanismshaveverylittletodowithlogicandsemantics,butaregroundedinsomepragmaticprinciples,especiallytheCooperativePrinciple.

      In1967,AmericanphilosopherH.P.GriceputforwardtheCooperativePrincipleinLogicandConversation:“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged”(Yule,37).Supportingthisprincipleisthefourmaxims:QuantityMaxim:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired,butnotmore,orless,thanisrequired.QualityMaxim:Donotsaythatwhichyoubelievetobefalseorforwhichyoulackevidence.RelationMaxim:Berelevant.MannerMaxim:Beclear,briefandorderly.

      Theimportanceofthisprincipleliesintwoaspects:Firstly,itisthefirsttimetosystematicallyinducepeople’sconversationalactivitiesintolaw.Secondly,whenviolationoftheCooperativePrincipletakesplace,inonecase,understandingofthediscourseishinderedandthespeakershouldmakeremediesimmediatelytosmooththeconversation;inanothercase,ifthespeakerdoessointentionally,therewillbemoretoitthanwhatissaid.Conversationalimplicatures,inthisway,willbegivenriseto.

      1.ViolationoftheQuantityMaxim

      1.1知之為知之,不知為不知。(《論語》)

      Inthissentence,repetitionofthesamewordappearstwice,whichaccordswiththeformula“P=P”.Fromapurelylogicalperspective,thesentencehasnocommunicativevaluesinceitexpressessomethingcompletelyobvious,butitcanbeunderstoodeasilythatthissentenceprimarilyadvisespeopletobehonestinengaginginscholarship.Similarapparentlypointlessexpressionsare“Businessisbusiness”and“Girlsaregirls”.Thiskindofphenomenoniscalledtautology.Whentautologyisappliedinaconversation,itisclearthatthespeakerintendstoexpressmorethanissaid.Usually,thiskindofusagehasstrongsenseofemotion.

      1.2Polonius:Whatdoyouread,mylord?

      Hamlet:Words,words,words.(Shakespeare,Hamlet)

      1.3“我們是睡在鼓里,等人家來殺!等人家來殺!”(矛盾:《子夜》)

      FromPolonius’perspective,Hamlet’sanswerprovideslessinformationthanexpected.For“words”beingtheobjectof“read”seemstobetoogeneralandPoloniusstilldidnotknowwhatHamletread.Infact,repetitionoftheword“words”showsHamlet’sstrongimpatiencethathewasunwillingtotalktoPolonius.Inanotherpointofview,fromthefactthatPolonius’sattitudeiswarmandcooperativewhileHamlet’sattitudeisimpatientandindifferent,theremustbesomeimplications.Similarlyinexample3,repetitionofasentenceshowsthespeaker’sstrongindignation.

      2.ViolationoftheQualityMaxim

      2.1南唐時,賦稅繁重,京城地區又遭旱災,人民叫苦連天。一天,烈祖在北苑飲宴,對群臣說:“外地都下雨了,只是都城卻不下雨,怎么回事呢?”申漸應到:“雨不感入城,是怕抽稅而已。”烈祖大笑,馬上下令除掉重稅。(《古今譚概—微詞》)

      ViolationoftheQualityMaximhastwocases,onecaseisakindof“moraloffence”,whichmeansthatthespeakerisunwillingtoobservetheQualitymaximandislying.Theothercaseisakindof“falselie”,whichmeansthatthespeakerisunwillingtocooperativeandistryingtoexpressimplicitmeaning.Inthisexample,ShenJiancleverlyusedpersonificationthateventherainisscaredofthetaxbecausethemanhetalkedtowasthekingofthedynasty.JustthinkoftheimpossibilityofabolishingtheheavytaxationifShenJianusedbluntwordstoremonstrate!

      2.2Tommy:Mother!Thelorrygoingbyisasbigasamountain!

      Mother:Why,dear,I’vetoldyouovertenthousandtimesnottoexaggeratethingssoterriblyandyourbadhabitremainsunchanged.

      Itisbelievedthatthereisnosuchalorryasbigasamountainonearthanditisalsobelievedthatthemothercouldnothavetoldhersoonovertenthousandtimes.Hyperbole,justlikeirony,metaphorandmeiosisarealltheresultsthatviolatetheQualitymaxim.Ofcourse,ifthemotherherselfhadnotexaggerated,thestorywouldnotbesofunny.

      3.ViolationoftheRelationmaxim

      3.1周沖:爸,我聽說礦上對于這次受傷的工人不給一點撫恤金。

      周樸園:(頭一揚)我認為你這次話說得太多了。(《雷雨》)

      ZhouPuyuandidnotprovideanyinformationaboutwhatZhouChongwasinterestedin.Onthecontrary,heusedaperformativeutterance:ToletZhouChongshutup.ViolationoftheRelationmaxim,infact,isusedtopreventZhouChongtalkingaboutmattersconcerningtheaccidentintheminesandinjuriesoftheworkers.

      3.2Anotherexamplecomesfromatruestoryofthewriter.Onedaysheaskedoneofherstudentstoreadthetextinclass.Owingtolackofconcentration,thestudentmisreadanothertext,sothewritersaid,“你的書是那個版本的?”insteadofdirectcriticizing.Alltheclasshadagoodlaugh,includingtheboyhimself,buteveryoneunderstoodherintentionofirony.

      4.ViolationoftheMannermaxim

      4.1“一個人死了之后,究竟有沒有魂靈?”

      “也許有罷,我想。”我于是吞吞吐吐地說。

      “那么,也就有地獄了?”

      “啊!地獄?”我很吃驚,只得支吾著,“地獄?論理,就該也有。然而也未必……誰來管這等事……”(《祝福》)

      Toviolatethemannermaximmeansthatthespeakerspeaksobscurelyandambiguouslyinsteadofspeakingbrieflyandorderly.LuXunisagreatmasteroflanguage,soheusedmildandindirectwordsinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectwordsinordernottobringmentalagonytoher.Also,pun,whichis“aformofspeechplayinwhichawordorphraseunexpectedlyandsimultaneouslycombinestwounrelatedmeanings”(Huang,139),isoftenusedtoproduceconversationalimplicature.

      4.2Mrs.Jones:We’regoingtobeneighborsnow.We’vebroughtahomenexttoyou,rightontheedgeofthelake.

      Mrs.Brown:Soglad!Hopeyou’lldropinsometimes.

      4.3Ifinallyfiguredouthowgovernmentworks.ThesenategetsthebillfromtheHouse,thePresidentgetsthebillfromtheSenate,andwegetthebillforeverything.

      Thekeywordinexample2is“drop”,whichbearsthemeaning“fall”andleavesspacetothereaderstoimagineifMrs.Jonesfellintothelake.IfMrs.Brownchangedtheambiguous“drop”into“visit”,nohumorwillbeproduced.Inexample3,thefirstandthesecond“bill”srefertothedraftofaproposedlaw,whilethethirdonereferstoawrittenstatementofmoneyowned.Theauthorsatiricallyexposesthecorruptionoftheofficials,whilethecommonpeoplehavetobeartheburden.

      SincepeopleshouldfollowtheCooperativePrincipleinconversation,thenwhydotheyviolateit?Whydonottheystatetheirviewsfrankly,butlettheirlistenersrecognizethecommunicatedmeaningsviainference?G.LeechhasproposedthePolitenessPrincipletorescuetheCooperativePrinciple.Inhispointofview,thereasonwhypeopleviolatetheCooperativePrincipleisoutoftheconsiderationofpoliteness.SothemorepeopleknowaboutthePolitenessPrinciple,thebettertheyunderstandconversationalimplicatures.

      BeforetalkingaboutthePolitenessPrinciple,theFaceTheoryshouldbeintroduced.Asatechnicalterm,facemeansthepublicself-imageofaperson.Itreferstoothatemotionalandsocialsenseofselfthateveryonehasandexpectseveryoneelsetorecognize.Thatistosay,peoplehavetheneedtobeconnected,whichiscalledpositiveface,andtheneedtobeindependent,whichiscallednegativeface.Inordertokeepthelistener’spositiveface,thespeakershouldfallinwithhislistener’swishes;atthesametime,hisownnegativefaceisthreatened.Also,inordertokeepthelistener’snegativeface,thespeakershouldapologize,belittlehimselfandtalkambiguously,whilehisownpositivefaceisthreatenedsimultaneously.Sopeople’conversationalactivitiesareactuallyfacethreateningacts.Inordertokeephislistener’sfaceaswellashis,thebestwayforthespeakertodoistobepolite.

      Politeness,inaninteraction,referstothemeansemployedtoshowawarenessofanotherperson’sface.InLeech’sPolitenessPrinciple,therearesixmeansormaximsasfollows:tactmaxim,generositymaxim,approbationmaxim,modestymaxim,andagreementmaximandsympathymaxim.In2.1ShenJianhadtodetermine,ashespoke,therelativesocialdistancebetweenhimandtheemperorandhencetheemperor’s“facewants”,whichreferstoaperson’sexpectationsthattheirpublicself-imagewillberespected.TheemperorissupremeandShenJiansuccessfullyappliedthetactmaxim.LuXunalsoappliedthePolitenessPrincipleinexample4.1.

      TodrawpragmaticimplicationsfromtheviolationoftheCooperativePrincipleisofnodifferencebetweenthewestandtheeast.Whatisadifferentlieinpeople’schoiceofthemaximsoftheCooperativePrinciple.Forexample:

      1.A:Youdancewell.

      B:I’mgladtohearthat.

      2.AnEnglishteacherispraisingaChinesegirl’scalligraphy,“Oh,whatbeautifulhandwriting!”Butthegirlreplied,“No,no,notatall.”“You’rejoking.”TheEnglishteacherbecameangryandwentaway.

      Here,neitherB’sreplyisimmodestnortheChinesegirl’sremarkisinsincere.ThereasonwhytheEnglishteacherbecameangryandwentawayisthatthegirlhasmadeagreatmistake—sheunintentionallymakestheforeignteacherfeelbeingmocked.Suchkindofmistakeiscalled“pragmaticfailure”,thatistosay,theinabilitytounderstandwhatismeantbywhatissaid.Byculture,wemean"asystemofsharedbeliefs,values,customs,behaviors,andartifactsthatthememberofasocietyusetocopewiththeirworldandwithoneanother,andthataretransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughlearning"(Bates,28).Generallyspeaking,ChinesepaymoreattentiontothePolitenessPrinciplewhilethewesternerslaymoreemphasisontheCooperativePrinciple,andChinese-styledpolitenessischaracterizedbyfouraspects:respectfulness,modesty,attitudinalwarmthandrefinement.

      Respectfulnessmeanstorespectoneselfandappreciateothers,andtoshowawarenessofanotherperson’sface.OnepeculiarexamplecanbefoundintheChineseandtheEnglish–speakingpeople’sdifferentwaysofaddress.Inrecentyears,thetrendofmanyEnglish-speakingpeoplehasbeentoaddressothersbyusingthefirstname,evenwhenpeoplemeetforthefirsttime.Thisappliestopeopleofdifferentageanddifferentsocialstatus.Forexample,manycollegestudentscalltheirprofessorsbytheirfirstnames.Theprofessorsdonotregardthisasasignofdisrespectorfamiliarity,butrather,asanindicationthattheprofessorisconsideredaffableandhasasenseofequality.Also,itisnotatalluncommontohearachildcallingamucholderperson“Joe,Ben”etc.This,ofcourse,isquitecountertoChinesecustom.Onecanimaginethereactionsofadultsofachildweretocallagrandparentbyhisorherfirstname,orastudenttodothesameincallingateacher.Aquickreprimand,andpossiblyevenaspankingforthechild,wouldbesuretofollow.

      Modesty,whichisregardedasakindofvirtuebyChinese,meanstobelittleoneselfandpraiseothers.ToEnglish-speakingpeople,praiseistobeaccepted,generallywitharemarklike“thankyou”or“I’mverygladtohearthat”.Itisassumedthatthecomplimentissincere;therefore,thereshouldbenoshowoffalsehumility,nopretendedmodesty;ToChinese,however,thecustomaryreplytoacomplimentwouldbetoclaimthatoneishardlyenoughorthatsuccesswasmoreamatterofluckorsomeothercircumstances.Acceptanceofacomplimentwouldimplyconceitorlackofmanners,andtheChinesegenerallymurmursomerepliesaboutnotbeingworthyofthepraise.Thisalsoexplainswhyinsomewesterners’eyes,theeasternersareinferior,hypocriticalandinsincere.SoitwouldnotbeunusualtohearanAmericanwomantalkingabouthowhardherhusbandworksandhowwellhehasdone,aboutallthepromotionsandhonorsthathehasreceived.Shemightdothesameaboutherchildren.ButinChina,thiswouldbeconsideredbadtaste:onesimplydoesnotpraisemembersofone’sownfamilyinfrontofothers.AnotherexampleofaChinesetabooiscomplimentingamanonhiswife’slooks.ManyChinese,especially,thosebeyondtheiryouth,wouldregardtheremake“Youhavealovelywife”asalmostindecent.Yetthesamecomplimentwouldbeconsideredperfectlynaturalandevenhighlyappreciatedbywesterners.

      AttitudinalwarmthmeanstheChineseseemtoshowmuchconcernabouttheotherpeople.OnetypicalwayfortheChinesetoshowcareistoaskotherpeopleagesincome,ormaterialstatus.Forexample,“Howoldareyou?”“Howmuchdoyoumake?”“Soyou’redivorced?Whatwasthereason?Couldn’tyoutwogetalong?”AlloftheseaspectsareconsideredasprivacyonwhichEnglish–speakingpeopleplaceahighvalue.TheEnglishhaveasaying“Aman’shomeishiscastle”,meaningaman’shomeissacredtohim;nooneshouldcomeinnwithoutpermission.Itisalsowithhislifeandpersonalaffairs.Sothesequestionsareconsideredpryingintoanindividual’spersonallife,whichisanotherformofinvadingaperson’s“castle”.

      Refinementmeanstoospeakinmildandelegantway.ThentheChineseintendtopraiseone’snoblecharacter,theymayuse“松,竹,梅”toimply“高風亮節”,but“pine,bambooandplum”cannotrecallthesamemeaningtotheEnglish-speakingpeople.“柳”inChinesecultureoftenhassuchabadsenseas“花街柳巷”,“尋花問柳”,whileinEnglishcultureitisasymbolofmisery.Also“秋”isconnectedwith“悲,涼,傷,愁”inChineseculture,suchas“逢秋悲寂寞”,“夜靜風竹敲秋韻,萬葉千起皆是恨”,butitisjustthecontrarythatautumnisalwaysassociatedwithtranquilityandmerrimentinEnglishculture.

      Inrespecttomarriageandlove,theChinesearemorereservedandself-restrained,especiallyintheolddays.Itisseldomforthemtoexpresstheirpassionas“I’mdyingtomarryyou,Iwanttobemywife,orI’lldevotemyselftoyou.”Thefollowingexamplesprovideasharpcontrast:

      寶玉,黛玉一起偷讀《西廂記》后,寶玉笑道:“妹妹,你說(書)好不好?”黛玉笑著點頭兒。寶玉笑道:“我就是多愁多病的身,你就是那傾國傾城的貌。”黛玉聽了,不覺帶腮連耳的通紅了……桃腮帶怒,薄面含嗔,指著寶玉道:“你這該死的,胡說了,好好兒的,把這些淫詞艷曲弄了來,說這些混帳話,欺負我……”說到“欺負”二字,就把眼圈兒紅了,轉身就走。(《紅樓夢》)

      “Ifit’scrazytoloveyou,IguessIam”Marvastoppedherstepsandsaid,”Thenthatmakestwoofus”Maurice,feelingencouraged,clutchedhertohim,heldherinhidtightgrip…andputhislipsonhers.(H.E.Harper’sMagazineReader)

      Marvaspokeout“loveyou”straightforwardandMauricewnaturallykissedher.Thisisthecommonwayforthewesternerstounbosomthemselves.WhattheyconsiderfirstistofollowtheQualitymaxim.Whileinthefirstexample,thoughJiaBaoyvandLinDaiyvlovedeachother,JiaBaoyvrevealedhisfeelingviaanillusionandLinDaiyvpretendedtobeoffended.This,again,reflectstraditionalChinesesocialmoralandvalueconcept.Peoplewouldrathersacrificethetruthtogetamityandunity.SotheywouldbettersacrificetheQualitymaximandtheMannermaxim.

      Language,asaspecialformofcommunication,maybeviewedasasystem,asavehicleforculturaltransmission.Itdoesnotexistapartfromculture.Thus,languageandculturalareinteractiveandunderstandingofonerequiresunderstandingoftheother.Speakingandwritingareallbasedontheneedofsocialcommunication.Tobetterachievethecommunicativegoal,itisnecessarytochoosetheappreciatewayofexpressionundercertaincircumstances.Inspeechonecanexpressmeaningseffectivelywiththehelpofgestures,facialexpressions,ortoneofvoice.Forexample,whenonesays“He’sagenerousguy!”ifonegivesasarcasticintonationtotheword“generous”,thenthesenseoftheword“generous”istwistedinto“stingy”.Inwriting,itisprimarilytheconcept—theotherwordsinthesentence,paragraph,oreventhetotalcompositionandbackgroundofthepeople,includingtheirculturalconcept,status,profession,age—thatcontrolsafigurativeword,pointingitsmeaninginaspecialdirection.Sincerhetoricistheartofusinglanguageeffectivelyandinvolvespracticingthemosteffectivemeansorstrategiesforinformingorpersuadingtheothers,thendecidingwhattowriteorspeakandhowtowriteorspeak,howbesttogetone’sarticleorspeecheffectivelyrequiresnotonlycreativityandimagination,butalsogoodbackgroundknowledgeofboththespeakerandthehearer,too.Thusculturalfactorsplayanimportantroleinusinglanguageeffectively.

      BIBLIOGRAPHY

      [1]BatesD.G.&F.Plog,CulturalAnthropology,3rdedition,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1990

      [2]何自然,PragmaticsandEnglishlearning,上海外語教育出版社,1979

      [3]LadoRobert,"Howtocomparetwocultures",Linguisticsacrosscultures—AppliedLinguisticsforlanguageteachers,US:theUniversityofMichigan,1957

      [4]Leech,Geoffrey,Semantics,上海外語教育出版社,1987

      [5]彭增安,《語用修辭文化》,上海學林出版社,1998

      [6]戚雨村,《現代語言學的特點與發展趨勢》,上海外語教育出版社,1997

      [7]Yule,George,Pragmatics,上海外語教育出版社,2000

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